Evaluate Various Organizational Perspectives Essay

Evaluate Various Organizational Perspectives - Essay Example in place, an organization can be described as a unit or group of people that utilizes skills (knowledge) to perform tasks that achieve a universal goal. An organization has a systematic structure that consists of management with components based on regulations such as laws (form and nature) (Draft, 2007). Organization theory is a collection of principles that suggests an appropriate way of organizational management. Organizational theories encompass the organizational structures and designs. Another aspect of organizational theory is that it articulates internal and external relationships of organizations (Argyris, 2001). Organizational theory is multidisciplinary as it derives its principles from arts, sciences and humanities. The multidisciplinary aspect of organizational theory makes studying organization theory fascinating and challenging. Most scholars like the challenge of thinking in an interdisciplinary manner. A second reason to study organizational theory is that with the right attitude an individual will acquire or improve his/her managerial skills. Organizational theory covers crucial management areas such as strategic finance, marketing, human resource, operations communication and information technology (Grint, 2005). A cogent theory should have a clear non-complex design. The theory should also reflect on culture in regard to its principles. Finally, a theory should outline principles that act as guidelines in the course of change. This calls for theories to be flexible in order for them to meet these standards (Grint, 2005). The multiple perspectives in organization theory create open mindedness especially in regard to management of the organization. This is because various perspectives provide for different causes of action for situations. This aspect of diversity is also necessary when it comes to dealing with change as the theories provide alternative courses of action (Hales,

Safeguarding and Protection in Health Essay Example for Free

Safeguarding and Protection in Health Essay There are many forms of abuse but are usually classified under five main headings, physical, sexual, psychological, financial and institutional. Signs of possible abuse can come in physical forms, such as bruises, cuts, burn marks, etc; emotional signs like flinching, crying and any other changes in the normal behaviour of the client. Although these are signs of abuse it is in no way conclusive evidence of such. Warning signs are NOT evidence of abuse but possible indicators of such. Physical abuse can take many forms but is usually where some form of bodily harm is committed. For example: hitting, slapping, scalding, burning, pinching, force feeding, refusing access to toilet facilities, misuse of medication or restraint, leaving someone in soiled clothes or bedding, etc. The warning signs for possible physical abuse can be things like withdrawal or mood changes, finger marks or multiple bruises, black eyes or bruised ears, scratches or cuts, burn marks, welt marks, a history of unexplained falls or injuries, pressure sores or rashes from wet/soiled bedding or clothes, fractures especially if accompanied by multiple bruises or finger marks, explanations that dont match the injuries, reluctance to be left with the alleged abuser, etc. Sexual abuse is when a sexual activity is performed without informed consent being freely given, such as rape or sexual assault, indecent exposure, sexual harassment, masturbation, involving a vulnerable adult in pornography, enforced witnessing of sexual acts or sexual media, attempted or penetration of intimate areas without informed consent, etc. It can also involve abuse of a position of power. Children are unable to give informed consent to any sexual activity of any description. Some adults are also unable to do this due to diminished capacity or a lack of understanding of the meaning. The physical warning signs for possible sexual abuse can be things like  scratches, abrasions or persistent infections in the anal or genital area (including urine infections), pregnancy, bruises, bite or scratch marks on the body, burns, blood on underwear, abdominal pain with no diagnosable cause, etc. The emotional warning signs for possible sexual abuse can be refusal to undress for activities such as swimming or bathing, flinching when carrying out normal duties such as washing, self injury, self destructive behaviour including alcohol or drug abuse, suicide attempts, depression, aggression, anxiety, crying, sexual abuse of others, provocative sexual behaviour or promiscuity, reluctance to be left with the alleged abuser, etc. The key point to remember when determining possible sexual abuse is the mental capacity to give informed consent to any sexual activity. Psychological abuse an element of psychological abuse exists in all forms of abuse. Emotional distress will be caused when a person becomes a victim of abuse at the hands of someone they trusted such as a family member, friend or carer. There is some abuse that is purely psychological such as bullying, shouting, ignoring, swearing, humiliation, blaming, intimidation, verbal abuse, threats of harm or abandonment, harassment, coercion, deprivation of privacy or dignity, etc. Indicators for possible psychological abuse can be the carer (either professional, family or friend) seeming to ignore the vulnerable persons presence and needs, cared for person fearful of raised voices or distressed if they feel they are in trouble, reports from neighbours about shouting, screaming or swearing, the client not wanting to be alone with alleged abuser, no value of basic human rights (such as opinion, choice and dignity), being treated like a child, etc. Financial abuse can be committed by family, friends, care workers or other outside influences and includes fraud, theft, exploitation, pressure regarding things such a wills, property, inheritance or financial transactions, etc. Indicators are people not being able to manage their own financial affairs when they have the mental capacity to do so, family unwilling to pay from clients funds for services even though the client has enough funds, mismanagement or misappropriation of clients finances, denying client access to their own account, loss of trust, insecurity, client is overly conforming or submissive and Power of Attorney obtained when individual is unable to comprehend. Example: A client is bed ridden and gives a family friend her bank card in order for that care giver to do shopping, pay bills, etc. The family friend then abuses this position by stealing the money from the clients bank or transferring it directly into their account (fraud). Institutional abuse can be committed by organisations, groups or even individuals and includes abuse of power or authority, not maintaining professional boundaries, misuse or misappropriate dispensing of medication, physical restraint, using information of client to embarrass or bully and not maintaining dignity. Indicators can be loss of control, low self-esteem or confidence, crying, a severe lack of staff, aggressive or submissive behaviour. Self Neglect/Neglect by others can be done either by the client themselves or by their carer, professional or otherwise, not meeting the support needs of the vulnerable person and can include neglectful or self harming behaviours, refusing to eat or drink, neglecting personal hygiene, refusing the toilet when able to use, actual bodily harm e.g. cutting and hitting. Neglect by others can include not maintaining an expectable level of hygiene e.g. leaving client in wet/soiled pads, not covering the basic needs of the client e.g. not washing them properly, toileting, feeding or personal care. Indicators are weight loss, lack of personal hygiene e.g. not bathing or washing regularly, dehydration, signs of self harm, depression, withdrawn or submissive behaviour. Discriminatory abuse can include racist or sexist abuse, abuse based on disability, age, gender, sexual orientation or religion; harassment or slander. Again: Warning signs are NOT evidence of abuse but possible indicators of such. Factors contributing to risk of abuse are age e.g. elderly or young children; poor communication between care giver and service user (this could be because of a medical problem or social/relationship issue); care giver having an addiction such as alcohol or drugs; challenging behaviour by the service user; care giver believing service user is being deliberately difficult, care role forced not taken on willingly, major changes to lifestyle because of giving care, multiple care responsibilities, carer or service user having lack of sleep, being socially isolated, care giver or service user being young or immature, financial or housing issues, illness or injury, culture or religion discrimination or prejudice, refugee or asylum-seekers, environmental/economic factors such as financial situation, mental health difficulties, physical disabilities such as sensory impairment, cognitive ability, level of education, intellectual understanding, learning difficulties and many more. Abuse by professionals risk factors are bullying of staff members by manager, a culture of not treating the service users with dignity or respect, poor-quality training, lack of investment into further staff training, poor staffing issues, lack of opportunity for care giver to form a rapport with the service user, low staff morale and not enough support for the staff via appraisals or supervisions. If you suspect someone is being abused then use your skills such as observation and communication with other professionals. You must inform your line manager of your suspicions and monitor the situation closely. If a services user makes an allegation of abuse first you must inform them  that you cannot promise to keep it confidential, you will have to inform the office. This can be difficult because often abuse sufferers will start off by saying something like If I tell you something, will you promise not to tell anyone else? Never promise this. Explain to the service user that you cant promise that you wont tell anyone but the people you do inform will be able to help the service user or it will only be shared on a need to know basis. However, if the service user (vulnerable adult) refuses to allow you to share the information then, other than the necessity to tell your manager, it will be difficult for you to do anything about the abuse. All effort should then go into trying to encourage the service user to agree to the sharing of information and pursuing an investigation. If the client has full mental capacity, and absolutely refuses, then you will have to accept that you can only monitor the situation carefully. Secondly, reassure the service user that you believe what youve been told, offer comfort if required and also confirm that it is not their fault that this has happened to them. Try to not get into a situation where you are given a lot of detailed information, although this might be difficult because the service user might want to tell you everything once they have started to talk or the location/environment might not allow it. If you do get stuck in a situation where you are given a lot of information try not to ask leading questions such as and then did he punch you? Say instead and then what happened? Listen carefully and try to remember everything you are told so that you can record the details later. Any written information pertaining to alleged or potential abuse must be kept in a locked cabinet. If the information is held electronically then it should be password protected. Only essential information should be kept and only used for the abused benefit or best interests. In response to alleged abuse you should Protect, Report, Preserve, Record and  Refer. Protect -Make sure the abused person is safe and protected against any further abuse. Ensure medical treatment is provided when necessary. Offer comfort and support to the abused so they know that they are safe. Concerns, suspicions or conclusive evidence of abuse require an immediate response. You may be even required to remove the alleged offender, take the service user to a safe place or offer to contact a trusted family member to provide support. Report All concerns about an abusive situation should be reported immediately to your line manager, or if that is not possible the on-call person so you can hand over the responsibility to them. It will be necessary to also write up a full written report as soon as possible after the admission or occurrence. Preserve You must ensure any evidence of the alleged abuse is not compromised. Examples: Sexual or Physical abuse can leave traces of forensic evidence so every effort should go into preserving it, such as dont clear up, dont clean any part of the area where the abuse took place, dont remove bedding or any clothes the abused might be wearing, keep other people away from the crime scene and try to persuade the abused not to take a shower, bathe, wash, brush their hair or teeth. If you suspect or are told about financial abuse then you must ensure that any documentation pertaining to that fact is kept in a safe place so it can be used as evidence. Record and refer Any form of abuse, suspected or otherwise must be recorded either by writing it down as soon as possible after being told or on audio tape so it can be written down later. This can then be used as part of the  evidence process. Make sure you take note of everything you observed, anything you have been told (hearsay) and by whom, any previous concerns and what has specifically has raised your concern this time. When making a formal statement or preparing a document that will be used in court, you dont include anything that can be classed as hearsay. A referral is where you provide the authorities with the information they require in order to resolve the matter for the service user such as the police, social services, the health trust, etc. The national policies and local systems that relate to safeguarding and protection from abuse are: National: Care Quality Commission, Criminal Record Bureau (CRB checks), Independent Safeguarding Authority (ISA), Common Assessment Framework (CAF), Vetting and Barring Scheme (VBS), No Secrets national framework and codes of practice for health and social care (2000), Safeguarding Adults review (2009), Working Together to Safeguard Children (2006) and Every Child Matters (2003). Local: Local Area Agreements (LAAs), Local Safeguarding Adults Board (LSABs) and Local Safeguarding Childrens Board (LSCBs). The role of these different agencies include multi-agency and inter-agency working collaborations such as health services, e.g. GPs, nurses, health visitors, occupational therapists; voluntary services, e.g. NSPCC, Age UK, MIND, RNIB, RNID; social services, e.g. residential childrens home workers, social worker, care assistants; the police; consulting the police regarding all safeguarding incidents; responsibilities for overseeing the Safeguarding Assessment and its outcome; allocating a named person usually from statutory agencies in health or social care; convening or chairing strategy meetings, including the agreement of responsibilities, Lead Professional; actions and time-scales; providing information about activities and outcomes to the Safeguarding Coordinator; overseeing the convening of Safeguarding Case Conferences; coordinating and monitoring  investigations. There are numerous sources of information and advice about the role of a home care assistant with regards to the safeguarding and protecting individuals from abuse such as policies, procedures and expected ways of working within the workplace environment; information from the Independent Safeguarding Authority (ISA); relevant and up to date information from websites, leaflets, organisations, local and voluntary groups including government sources e.g. DfE and DoH; voluntary organisations e.g. NSPCC, Benardos; Social Care Institute for Excellence and publications, e.g. Health and Social Care 3rd Edition; What to Do If You Suspect A Child Is Being Abused (2003); National Council for Voluntary Youth Services Keeping it Safe: a young person-centred approach to safety and child protection; Working Together to Safeguard Children (2006). You can reduce the risk of abuse by giving knowledge and empowerment to the service provider this includes: Person-centred values Dignity, independence, rights, fulfilment, privacy and choice. Reducing vulnerability by boosting confidence; autonomy; positive communication; listening and promoting independent decision making. Awareness that everyone has the right to live without fear, violence and abuse; protected from harm or exploitation. It is important that you build self esteem and confidence by encouraging active participation in a variety of activities such as personal care, walks, cooking, etc. Promoting choices and rights by encouraging independent thinking, choices and decisions; empowerment, independence and the importance of informed consent. It is vital to have an accessible complaints procedure in place that is easily read and understood. This will give the service user the confidence to know how to report a complaint and what action the company will take once the complaint is issued. This will reduce the likelihood of abuse. The  complaints procedure should have transparent policies; accountability; procedures and outlines of working practices; clear guidelines on reporting and recording the complaint; robust guidelines for following up the complaint and accessibility (wide distribution, high visibility, etc). Example: The company provides a care plan folder which is left in the service users home. This includes personal information of the service user such as name, telephone, address, doctors surgery, etc; observation sheets; medication records including authorisation to administer medication on behalf of the service user and the medication policy; Financial Record including procedures and expenses sheets; client guide giving an overview of the aims and objectives of the company, services offered, service overview, terms and conditions, quality assurance process, key policies and contacts, complaints on compliments procedures and hours of operation. At the back is a copy of the contract between the company and service user. Unsafe practices which might affect the well-being of service users are: Neglect of personal care duty such as not giving a wash or bath when required, withholding toilet facilities, force feeding and inappropriate dressing. Not following the medication procedures such as failing to check dosage or not properly recording the administration of medication on the given documentation. Failing to record financial transactions correctly. Misuse of authority physical restraint, not respecting professional boundaries. Failure to carry out supervisions or risk assessments. Bad communication and sharing of private confidential information such as not giving the client the respect they deserve or talking to them in a derogatory manner and breech of confidentiality. Failing to keep staff updated on current legislation and safeguarding practices such as insufficient training or unsafe recruitment, not carrying out CRB or reference checks. If unsafe practices have been identified then you must immediately report your concerns verbally to your direct line manager and then follow it up in writing. Find out what the policies are on whistle blowing and follow them. You can be dismissed or suspended if you fail to report your suspicions or allegations of abuse, unsafe practices or not following procedures. If nothing is forthcoming after you have made your report then you have the right to contact the police or social services directly. It is then their responsibility to ensure your report is investigated and followed up.

Aristotle :: essays research papers

Women in philosophy have always been seen as inferior to men. People had constructed this image of women as being less perfect and through this image, many philosophy were developed. Aristotle provided the first scientific explanation of women’s imperfection. He claimed that women were biologically inferior to men. Aristotle claimed that this was a factual statement, but he though it deserved â€Å"a rational scientific justification for this belief,†(Tuana,p.18).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aristotle believed that heat was the fundamental issue in the perfection of animals and therefore humans. The more heat a creature produced the more perfect of a being it was. He believed that women were â€Å"colder than man,†(p.18) so obviously they were less perfect than him as well. This heat difference is what gave women all of her problems. The less heat of women, therefore lead Aristotle to believe that she had a smaller brain. This lead to her many problems dealing with inferiority.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aristotle came up with proof for this theory based on his studies of semen and menstrual fluid. Aristotle believed that semen was conceived through blood but because of the heat of man, the semen turned white while being ejaculated. Using this as a basis, he tried to compare semen to menstrual flows, claiming they were the same because the onset of both occurred around the same time in males and females. Aristotle believed that women were colder because she was â€Å"unable to ‘cook’ her semen to the point of purity – ‘proof’ of her relative coldness,(p.19).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aristotle believed that women were not fully human due to their lack of heat. He believed this because he though that in conception, women did not have the ability to conduct heat and become the perfect form, male. Aristotle also claimed that nature always strives to create the perfect being, male, and in not doing so, creating female, it made an imperfection. He therefore thought that â€Å"woman was the misbegotten man,†(p.19).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aristotle’s arguments, however logical they sounded to him, were flawed. Aristotle thought that women gave birth to females either earlier in life or later. He though this happened because the heat in earlier and later times in life was deficient. This claim though could never have been proven. There has never been a â€Å"correlation between the age of a pregnant woman and the sex of her offspring,†(p.20). Another flaw in Aristotle’s logic was his belief that men were born more imperfect than females.

Geography Reading Project (timeline) :: essays research papers

Geography Reading Project   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This book is about a company that has figured out how to send people back in time by treating people as pieces of data. This company runs into problems when one of their time traveler shows up in the middle of a dessert and brought to a hospital and is very confusing to the resident doctor. The doctor thinks it is an abnormally and leaves it well enough alone. Meanwhile the company is very worried that one of their time travelers has been lost and showed up dead in a local hospital. Meanwhile the company sends a professor of archeology from a project back in Scotland. They send the professor back in time to the site he is working on to see how it was when it was built. But something goes horribly wrong and the professor does not return on time and at the site the other archeologists find a scroll that is from the professor but is dated form the 1400’s this all seems very mysterious. One of the representatives form the company that sent the professor back in time goes to the site in Scotland and explains what’s going on to all the other of archeologists and asks for a few volunteers to go back and bring the professor back to the present. When the volunteer’s go back they’re reappearing in front of some knight’s scares them so there two guides are killed and they are left alone in the 14th century trying to find the professor. While they are in the 14th century they prove true some of their hypothesis of what they thought that the area looked like. They go though all sorts of trouble but eventually bring the professor back and all is well. The whole story is set in Scotland and is set in the present and the past I will be describing the geographical features of the past not the present. Scotland is north of the equator and the exact longitude and latitude is 8-2 degrees longitude and 55-69 degrees latitude. This is not the exact longitude and latitude but it is as close as I could by including the whole country. Scotland is mostly in the Western Hemisphere barely the two cities Peterhead and Cruden Bay are on the right of the prime meridian so they are in the Eastern Hemisphere. The setting is lush green and almost virgin land that has not been touched by humans.

The United States foreign policy has always attracted

Because the United States is one of the most powerful nations in the world, its foreign policy has always attracted much attention of world community and evoked controversial assessments. Following certain historical period the American foreign policy tended to become that of ruling nation. To support this statement I’ll outline major issues of American foreign policy under President Theodore Roosevelt in this paper.Roosevelt’s presidency was distinguished by an active position in regard to foreign policy. President Theodore Roosevelt adhered to the idea that the â€Å"civilized† nations, to which he included the U.S., should actively participate in keeping world peace and order and taking patronage over developing nations. (Chessman, 32) For Roosevelt making the Philippines an American colony was the beginning of American active international power politics. In foreign affairs one of Roosevelt’s major concerns was the development of U.S. army and navy. Ro osevelt conspicuously presided over the expansion of American naval power, sending the Great White Fleet on a tour around the world from 1907 to 1909 to demonstrate the power of the United States to other nations. (Burton, 59) He insisted that the United States be the dominant naval power in the Pacific.When the government of Colombia refused to ratify an agreement that would allow the United States to begin construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, then a Colombian province, Roosevelt encouraged revolutionists to declare Panama independent and used the navy to prevent Colombian warships from quelling the revolt. Soon, he concluded an agreement with the new nation, granting the United States a zone in which to construct a canal. Roosevelt regarded the construction of the canal to be â€Å"a symbol of the triumph of American determination and technological know-how, his greatest accomplishment as president.† (Collin, 75) In 1904 the President announced the Roosevel t Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which formulated U.S. attitude towards European interventions in Latin America.According to this Corollary the USA took responsibility for ensuring that Latin American countries met their international obligations, thus this document, in effect, made the United States the â€Å"policeman† in the Western Hemisphere. (Beale, 211) That was one of the first instances of U.S. endeavor to spread its control over the political affairs of other countries. In this way the U.S. made it clear that Latin America is U.S. sphere of interest. Thus Roosevelt took full control of the finances of the Dominican Republic in 1905 in order to pay its debts to U.S. and European creditors. When the Senate balked at consenting to a commercial treaty with the Dominican Republic because Southern senators considered it harmful to Southern sugar growers, Roosevelt implemented its terms by calling it an executive agreement, which did not require Senate consent.In dealin g with major powers of the Eastern Hemisphere Roosevelt excellently exhibited his sophisticated diplomatic skills. He acted as a mediator in bringing Russo-Japanese War to end at the Portsmouth Conference and received the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. Nevertheless his goal was not just to bring peace; his prime aim was to equalize Russian and Japanese powers in Asia that in turn might have assisted American interests. Again through implementing the informal executive agreement Roosevelt exchanged Japan’s approbation of the American presence in the Philippine Islands for recognition by the U.S. of the fact that Japan conquered Korea. His diplomacy facilitated the Algeciras Conference of 1906 that quieted differences between France and Germany over Morocco.Theodore Roosevelt’s influence on the America of his day and in the years thereafter was palpable in numerous ways and the foreign policy was not exception. The nature of presidential office and power, the pl ace of the United States in world affairs identify the principal categories where Roosevelt made an enormous difference in national life and its history. Today it is arguable that Theodore Roosevelt’s actions in foreign affairs gave rise to the modern presidency.ReferencesBeale, Howard K. (1956) Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power Baltimore: Johns Hopkins PressBurton, David H. (1997) Theodore Roosevelt, American Politician: An Assessment. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University PressChessman, G. Wallace (1969) Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Power Boston: Little Brown and CompanyCollin, Richard H. (1985) Theodore Roosevelt: Culture, Diplomacy, and Expansion: A New View of American Imperialism Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press

sound of music essays

sound of music essays 25 pages in length. As the new millennium approaches, business and marketing strategies within all industries will continue to present inspired methods in order to reach for the highest profit margin in the twenty- first century. As a means by which to reach for the highest profit margin, and thus effectively represent idealistic philosophies, contemporary commerce has found that Internet-based businesses can, indeed, benefit a larger percentage of people than that of traditional commerce. Not unlike other enterprise that relies upon a positive bottom line to remain competitive, small and large companies alike are faced with ever-mounting competition in this day of high costs and an even higher competitive factor. Staying within the somewhat confined boundaries of industry, while at the same time attempting to focus on the ever-changing consumer market, is as much of a concern for modest companies as it is for any other conglomerate. Indeed, for businesses to thrive amidst global com petition, certain strategies must be approached. The writer discusses profitability of World Wide Web-based companies. Bibliography lists 21 sources. TLCbizwb.wps World Wide Websites and Small Businesses This 5 page report examines the opportunities available to small business through maintaining a website and marketing via the Internet. Bibliography lists 10 sources. Webiz.wps An 18 page paper discussing Dell's acsension to the number one producer of personal computers and the competitive pressures they face. Historically, Dell Computer has participated primarily in the hardware segment of the PC market, and has concentrated on government agencies and small business for the bulk of their sales. With the shift of focus among so many companies regarding just what the Internet might be able to do for them, both in terms of boosting sales of their own products and as a tool for developing intranets not dependent on physical location as Local Area N...

The Most Abundant Types of Insect Fossils

The Most Abundant Types of Insect Fossils Since insects lack bones, they didnt leave behind skeletons for paleontologists to unearth millions of years later. How do scientists learn about ancient insects without fossilized bones to study? They examine the abundant evidence found in the different types of insect fossils described below. For the purpose of this article, weve defined a fossil as any preserved physical evidence of insect life from a time period prior to recorded human history. Preserved in Amber Much of what we know about prehistoric insects is derived from evidence trapped in amber, or ancient tree resin. Because tree resin is a sticky substance – think of a time when youve touched pine bark and come away with sap on your hands – insects, mites, or other tiny invertebrates would quickly become trapped upon landing on the weeping resin. As the resin continued to ooze, it would soon encase the insect, preserving its body. Amber inclusions date as far back as the Carboniferous period. Scientists can also find preserved insects in resin dated just a few hundred years old; these resins are called copal, not amber. Because amber inclusions form only where trees or other resinous plants grew, the insect evidence recorded in amber documents the relationship between ancient insects and forests. Put simply, insects trapped in amber lived in or near wooded areas. Studying Impressions If youve ever pressed your hand into a freshly poured bed of cement, youve created the modern equivalent of an impression fossil. An impression fossil is a mold of an ancient insect, or more often, a part of an ancient insect. The most durable parts of the insect, the hard sclerites, and wings, comprise the majority of impression fossils. Because impressions are just a mold of an object that was once pressed in the mud, and not the object itself, these fossils assume the color of the minerals in which they are formed. Typically, insect impressions include only a mold of the wing, frequently with sufficiently detailed wing venation to identify the organism to order or even family. Birds and other predators that might have eaten the insect would find the wings unpalatable, or perhaps even indigestible, and leave them behind. Long after the wing or cuticle has decayed, a copy of it remains etched in stone. Impression fossils date back to the Carboniferous period, providing scientists with snapshots of insect life from up to 299 million years ago. Compressions Some fossil evidence formed when the insect (or part of the insect) was physically compressed in sedimentary rock. In a compression, the fossil contains organic matter from the insect. These organic residues in the rock retain their color, so the fossilized organism is conspicuous. Depending on how coarse or fine the mineral comprising the fossil is, an insect preserved by compression may appear in extraordinary detail. Chitin, which makes up part of the insects cuticle, is a very durable substance. When the rest of the insect body decays, the chitinous components often remain. These structures, such as the hard wing covers of beetles, comprise most of the fossil record of insects found as compressions. Like impressions, compression fossils date back as far as the Carboniferous period. Trace Fossils Paleontologists describe dinosaur behavior based on their study of fossilized footprints, tail tracks, and coprolites – trace evidence of dinosaur life. Similarly, scientists studying prehistoric insects can learn a great deal about insect behavior through the study of trace fossils. Trace fossils capture clues to how insects lived in different geologic time periods. Just as hardened minerals can preserve a wing or cuticle, such fossilization can preserve burrows, frass, larval cases, and galls. Trace fossils provide some of the richest information about the co-evolution of plants and insects. Leaves and stems with obvious insect feeding damage comprise some of the most abundant fossil evidence. The trails of leaf miners, too, are captured in stone. Sediment Traps Younger fossils – if one can call 1.7 million-year-old fossils young – are recovered from sediment traps representing the Quaternary period. Insects and other arthropods immobilized in peat, paraffin, or even asphalt were entombed as layers of sediment accumulated over their bodies. Excavations of such fossiliferous sites often yield tens of thousands of beetles, flies, and other invertebrates. The La Brea tar pits, located in Los Angeles, is a famous sediment trap. Scientists there have excavated well over 100,000 arthropods, many of them carrion feeders that were preserved along with the large vertebrate carcasses on which they fed. Sediment traps provide scientists with more than a catalog of species from a certain geological time frame. Quite often, such sites also offer evidence of climate change. Many, if not most, of the invertebrate species found in sediment traps, are extant. Paleontologists can compare their fossil finds with the current known distributions of living species, and extrapolate information about the climate at the time those insects were entombed. Fossils recovered from the La Brea tar pits, for example, represent terrestrial species that inhabit higher elevations today. This evidence suggests the area was once cooler and moister than it is now. Mineral Replications In some fossil beds, paleontologists find perfect mineralized copies of insects. As the insects body decayed, dissolved minerals precipitated out of solution, filling the void left as the body disintegrated. A mineral replication is an accurate and often detailed 3-dimensional replica of the organism, in part or whole. Such fossils typically form in places where water is rich with minerals, so animals represented by mineral replications are often marine species. Mineral replications give paleontologists an advantage when excavating fossils. Because the fossil is usually formed of a different mineral than the surrounding rock, they can often dissolve the outer rock bed to remove the embedded fossil. For example, silicate replications can be extracted from limestone using an acid. The acid will dissolve the calcareous limestone, leaving the silicate fossil unscathed.